Table of contents

List of contributors xi

Preface xvii

1 What does 'sustainable construction' mean? An overview 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.1 The influence of the building sector 3

1.1.2 Can we afford sustainability? 6

1.1.3 How can we achieve sustainability in the building sector? 6

1.2 Aims of sustainable construction 7

1.2.1 Ecological aims 8

1.2.2 Social aims 10

1.2.3 Economic aims 11

References 12

2 Legal background and codes in Europe 13

2.1 Normative background 14

2.2 Comments on EN 15804 and EN 15978 14

2.2.1 Modular life?-cycle stages 14

2.2.2 Comparability of EPDs for construction products 16

2.2.3 Functional equivalent 17

2.2.4 Scenarios at product or building level 17

2.2.5 Reuse and recycling in module D 18

2.2.6 Aggregation of the information modules 19

2.3 Legal framework 19

2.3.1 EU waste framework directive and waste management acts in European countries: product responsibility 19

2.3.2 EU construction products regulation 22

2.3.3 EU building directive and energy saving ordinance 23

2.3.4 Focus increasingly on construction products 26

2.3.5 EU industrial emissions directive 26

References 27

3 Basic principles of sustainability assessment 29

3.1 The life?-cycle concept 29

3.1.1 What is the meaning of the life?-cycle concept? 29

3.1.2 Life?-cycle phases of a building 29

3.2 Life?-cycle planning 32

3.2.1 Building Information Modeling in steel construction 32

3.2.2 Integrated and life?-cycle?-oriented planning 39

3.3 Life?-cycle assessment and functional unit 45

3.3.1 Environmental impact categories 47

3.4 Life?-cycle costing 48

3.4.1 Life?-cycle costing - cost application including cost planning 51

3.4.2 Net present value method 52

3.4.3 Life?-cycle cost analysis 53

3.5 Energy efficiency 59

3.6 Environmental product declarations 60

3.6.1 Institute Construction and Environment (IBU) - Program Operator for EPDs in Germany 62

3.6.2 The ECO Platform 63

3.7 Background databases 65

3.8 European open LCA data network 66

3.8.1 ÖKOBAUDAT 66

3.8.2 eLCA, an LCA tool for buildings 68

3.8.3 LCA - a European approach 71

3.9 Environmental data for steel construction products 72

3.9.1 The recycling potential concept 72

3.9.2 EPD for structural steel 78

3.9.3 EPD for hot?-dip galvanized structural steel 80

3.9.4 EPDs for profiled sheets and sandwich panels 81

3.10 KBOB?-recommendation - LCA database from Switzerland 85

3.10.1 KBOB?-recommendation as a basis for planning tools 86

3.10.2 Environmental impact assessment within the KBOB?-recommendation 87

3.10.3 Environmental impacts of hot?-rolled steel products 88

3.10.4 Example using data from the KBOB?-recommendation 90

References 93

4 Sustainable steel construction 97

4.1 Environmental aspects of steel production 97

4.2 Planning and constructing 99

4.2.1 Sustainability aspects of tender and contracting 99

4.3 Sustainable building quality 102

4.3.1 Space efficiency 102

4.3.2 Flexibility and building conversion 105

4.3.3 Design for deconstruction, reuse and recycling 108

4.4 Multistorey buildings 117

4.4.1 Introduction 117

4.4.2 Building forms 120

4.4.3 Floor plan design 122

4.4.4 Building height and height between floors 124

4.4.5 Flexibility and variability 124

4.4.6 Demands placed on the structural system 126

4.4.7 Floor systems 128

4.4.8 Columns 132

4.4.9 Innovative joint systems 133

4.5 High strength steel 134

4.5.1 Metallurgical background 136

4.5.2 Designing in accordance with Eurocodes 141

4.6 Batch hot?-dip galvanizing 141

4.6.1 Introduction 141

4.6.2 The galvanizing process 144

4.6.3 Batch galvanized coatings 144

4.6.4 Sustainability 146

4.6.5 Example: 72 years young - the Lydlinch Bridge 150

4.7 UPE channels 152

4.8 Optimisation of material consumption in steel columns 155

4.9 Composite beams 157

4.9.1 Composite beams with moderate high strength materials 159

4.9.2 Examples for high strength composite beams 160

4.9.3 Economic application of composite beams 161

4.10 Fire?-protective coatings in steel construction 166

4.10.1 Possible ways of designing the fire protection system 166

4.10.2 Fire protection of steel using intumescent coatings 166

4.10.3 The structure of fire?-protective coating systems 167

4.10.4 Sustainability of fire?-protection systems 168

4.11 Building envelopes in steel 171

4.11.1 Energy?-efficient building envelope design 171

4.11.2 Thermal performance and air-tightness of sandwich constructions 173

4.11.3 Effective thermal insulation by application of steel cassette profiles 182

4.12 Floor systems 190

4.12.1 Steel as key component for multifunctional flooring systems 190

4.12.2 Slimline floor system 197

4.12.3 Profiled composite decks for thermal inertia 203

4.12.4 Thermal activation of steel floor systems 208

4.12.5 Steel decks supporting zero energy concepts 210

4.12.6 Optimisation of multistorey buildings with beam?-slab systems 213

4.13 Sustainability analyses and assessments of steel bridges 219

4.13.1 State of the art 219

4.13.2 Methods for bridge analyses 224

4.13.3 External effects and external costs 225

4.13.4 Life?-cycle assessment 226

4.13.5 Uncertainty 227

4.14 Steel construction for renewable energy 229

4.14.1 Sustainability assessment concept 232

4.14.2 Sustainability characteristics 235

References 237

5 Sustainability certification labels for buildings 247

5.1 Major certification schemes 248

5.1.1 DGNB and BNB 249

5.1.2 LEED 256

5.1.3 BREEAM 257

5.2 Effect of structural design in the certification schemes 266

5.2.1 Life?-cycle assessments and environmental product declarations 266

5.2.2 Risks to the environment and humans 271

5.2.3 Costs during the life cycle 274

5.2.4 Flexibility of the building 277

5.2.5 Recycling of construction materials, dismantling and demolition capability 280

5.2.6 Execution of construction work and building site 284

References 288

6 Case studies and life?-cycle assessment comparisons 289

6.1 LCA comparison of single?-storey buildings 289

6.1.1 Structural systems 289

6.1.2 LCA information 293

6.1.3 Frame and foundations - structural system 294

6.1.4 Column without foundation - single structural member 298

6.1.5 Girder - single structural member 300

6.1.6 Building envelope 300

6.1.7 Comparison in the operational phase 301

6.1.8 Conclusions for single-storey buildings 303

6.2 LCA comparison of low rise office buildings 305

6.2.1 The low rise model building 305

6.2.2 LCA comparison of the structural system 307

6.3 LCA comparison of office buildings 310

6.3.1 LCA information 312

6.3.2 Results of the LCA for the building systems 312

6.3.3 Results of the LCA for a reference building 312

6.4 Material efficiency 317

6.4.1 Effective application of high strength steels 317

6.5 Sustainable office designer 323

6.5.1 Database 325

6.5.2 Example using sustainable office designer 325

6.6 Sustainability comparison of highway bridges 331

6.6.1 Calculation of LCC for highway bridges 331

6.6.2 Calculation of external cost for highway bridges 335

6.6.3 Calculation of LCA for highway bridges 338

6.6.4 Additional indicators 342

6.7 Sustainability of steel construction for renewable energy 344

6.7.1 Offshore wind energy 344

6.7.2 Digester for biogas power plants 348

6.8 Consideration of transport and construction 352

6.8.1 Environmental impacts according to the origin of structural steel products 352

6.8.2 Comparison of expenses for transport and hoisting of large girders 354

References 357

Index 361